COGNITIVE, NEUROLOGICAL, NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL AND NEUROPSYCHIATRIC ALTERATIONS IN POST-COVID-19 PATIENTS.

The SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes the COVID-19 disease, reports hundreds of infections daily, the alterations and sequelae of this new pathogen have been reported globally, due to the seriousness of being an older adult and evolving seriously.

Alteraciones cognitivas, neurológicas, neuropsicológicas y neuropsiquiátricas en pacientes post-covid-19. Una revisión sistemática / Cognitive, neurological, neuropsychological and neuropsychiatric alterations. in post-covid-19 patients

Introducción. El virus SARS CoV-2 causante de la enfermedad COVID-19, reporta cientos de contagios diariamente, las alteraciones y secuelas de este nuevo patógeno han sido reportadas a nivel global, por la gravedad que implica ser adulto mayor y evolucionar de manera grave. Metodología. El presente trabajo tiene un enfoque cualitativo, con intenciones exploratorias y descriptivas de las alteraciones a nivel cognitivo, neuropsicológico, neuropsiquiátrico y neurológico. Resultados. En el análisis fueron incluidos 16 artículos que expresan alteraciones en áreas de funcionamiento que comprometen la calidad de vida en pacientes mayores de 18 años, la evidencia científica es fuerte sobre las alteraciones que provoca el nuevo virus SARS Cov-2, desde el deterioro de la cognición, habilidades visuoespaciales y cefaleas constantes entre otros síntomas, que son de atención desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar. Conclusiones. La transmisión del virus en la población adulta supone un riesgo a la salud, este estudio evidencia las alteraciones a nivel cognitivo, motor y neurológico siendo la edad un factor que predispone la aparición de secuelas. (AU)

Introduction. The SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes theCOVID-19 disease, reports hundreds of infections daily,the alterations and sequelae of this new pathogen have been reported globally, due to the seriousness of being anolder adult and evolving seriously. Methodology. The present work has a qualitative approach, with exploratory and descriptive intentions of the alterations at a cognitive, neuropsychological, neuropsychiatric and neurological level. Results. In the analysis, 16 articles were included that express alterations in areas of functioning that compromise the quality of life in patients over 18 years of age, the scientific evidence is strong on the alterations caused by the new SARS-CoV-2 virus, from the deterioration of cognition, visuospatial abilities and constant headachesamong other symptoms, which are of attention from amultidisciplinary perspective. Conclusions. The transmission of the virus in the adult population poses a risk to health, this study shows alterations at the cognitive, motor and neurological level, agebeing a factor that predisposes the appearance of sequelae. (AU)

The benefits of role play in the development of drawing in preschool children.

Objective: The purpose of our study was to demonstrate the benefits of role play based on a Historical-Cultural perspective with the implementation of symbolic elements generated by the development of drawing of preschool children from suburban origin in a group of normal Mexican preschool children. We predict that the quality of the drawings will be improved after the preschoolers participate in such a role play program. Methods: A pre-experimental study was carried out, with pre-test and post-test assessments. The drawings were assessed with quantitative (frequencies of the quality of the parameters) and qualitative (characteristics of the children's drawings) methods. The role play program was based on Elkonin's method, activity theory, and P. Ya Galperin's formation by stages of mental actions. The program encouraged the use of graphic signs and symbols, with the intention of representing situations, actions, objects, and/or contents. Twenty-six preschool children participated in our study. Results: To know the effect of the role play program with symbolic elements on the drawing of preschool children, we performed a quantitative and qualitative analysis, a Wilcoxon test contrast between the initial and final assessment. Both analyses showed a significant increase in the scores in all the tasks with a medium-large effect size, being the largest "Pictograms" and "Drawing of the route"; and in the analysis of the qualitative parameters, specifically in "Maintains the objective," a significant increase was found in all the tasks. Discussion: Role play, being the main activity in preschool age, develops all aspects of the child's psychic life. The importance of role play in a preschool child makes it possible to work in the zone of proximal development with the regulatory function of language, with the planning, execution, and control of playful activity and, most importantly, with the use of various materials and perceptual-graphics tools. These findings showed an improvement in the development and complexity of the symbolic function in the drawings. Conclusion: Role play, as a work methodology in preschool age, leads to the use of new meaning systems that prepare the child to carry out present and future complex symbolic actions.

EEG Global Coherence in Scholar ADHD Children during Visual Object Processing.

Among neurodevelopmental disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the main cause of school failure in children. Notably, visuospatial dysfunction has also been emphasized as a leading cause of low cognitive performance in children with ADHD. Consequently, the present study aimed to identify ADHD-related changes in electroencephalography (EEG) characteristics, associated with visual object processing in school-aged children. We performed Multichannel EEG recordings in 16-year-old children undergoing Navon's visual object processing paradigm. We mapped global coherence during the processing of local and global visual stimuli that were consistent, inconsistent, or neutral. We found that Children with ADHD showed significant differences in global weighted coherence during the processing of local and global inconsistent visual stimuli and longer response times in comparison to the control group. Delta and theta EEG bands highlighted important features for classification in both groups. Thus, we advocate EEG coherence and low-frequency EEG spectral power as prospective markers of visual processing deficit in ADHD. Our results have implications for the development of diagnostic interventions in ADHD and provide a deeper understanding of the factors leading to low performance in school-aged children.

Efectos del juego de roles con elementos simbólicos en el desarrollo neuropsicológico de niños preescolares / The effect of role-playing with symbolic elements on the neuropsychological development of preschool children

Resumen Introducción. Valorar el desarrollo neuropsicológico de niños preescolares permite determinar los mecanismos débiles y fuertes en el curso del desarrollo infantil y conocer el nivel de preparación del niño para la escuela. El juego de roles sociales es una actividad que promueve el desarrollo neuropsicológico. Objetivo. Mostrar los resultados de la aplicación de un programa de juego de roles sociales para promover el desarrollo neuropsicológico en niños preescolares. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio longitudinal cuasi experimental con niños de dos grupos, uno experimental (n=28) y otro control (n=31 ). Se aplicaron pre-test y post-test a ambos grupos. El grupo experimental participó en un programa de juego de roles. La evaluación y el programa se basaron en los conceptos de la psicología y neuropsicología histórico-cultural. El grupo control solo recibió el programa curricular oficial de preescolar. Resultados. A través de análisis cuantitativos y cualitativos se observaron mejores ejecuciones de los niños del grupo experimental, principalmente en tareas gráficas y verbales y en mayores posibilidades de autoregulación. Conclusiones. El juego de roles promueve el desarrollo neuropsicológico. Los resultados muestran la utilidad de métodos de juego como estrategia de trabajo psicopedagógico.

Abstract Introduction: Neuropsychological developmental assessment of preschool children allows determining the weak and strong mechanisms of child development and to establish the level of readiness for school learning. Social role-playing is an activity that promotes neuropsychological development. Objective: To present the results of the application of a social role-play program to strengthen neuropsychological development in preschool children. Materials and methods: A quasi-experimental longitudinal study was conducted with children who were divided into two groups: an experimental group (n=28) and a control group (n=31). Pre-test and post-test assessments were made to both groups. The experimental group participated in a role-playing program. The assessments and the program were based on the concepts of historical-cultural psychology and neuropsychology. The control group only received the official preschool curriculum. Results: Quantitative and qualitative analyses showed better performance in the children of the experimental group, mainly in graphic and verbal tasks, as well as greater possibilities of voluntary activity. Conclusions: Social role-playing promotes neuropsychological development. These results reveal the usefulness of play methods as a strategy of psychopedagogical development.

Augmenting EEG-global-coherence with auditory and visual noise: Multisensory internal stochastic resonance.

The present investigation documents the electrophysiological occurrence of multisensory internal stochastic resonance (MISR) in the human electroencephalographic (EEG) coherence elicited by auditory and visual noise.We define MISR of EEG coherence as the phenomenon for which an intermediate level of input noise of a sensory modality enhances EEG coherence in response to another noisy sensory modality. Here, EEG coherence is computed by the global weighted coherence (GWC), modulated by quasi-Brownian noise. Specifically, we examined whether a particular level of auditory noise together with constant visual noise (experimental condition 1) and a specified level of visual noise together with constant auditory noise (experimental condition 2), improves EEG's GWC. We compared GWC between ongoing EEG basal activity (BA), zero noise (ZN), optimal noise (ON), and high noise (HN).The data disclosed an intermediate level of input noise that enhances the GWC for the majority of the subjects, thus demonstrating for the first time the occurrence of multisensory internal stochastic resonance (SR) in visuoauditory processing within the central nervous system.

Brownian Optogenetic-Noise-Photostimulation on the Brain Amplifies Somatosensory-Evoked Field Potentials.

Stochastic resonance (SR) is an inherent and counter-intuitive mechanism of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) facilitation in biological systems associated with the application of an intermediate level of noise. As a first step to investigate in detail this phenomenon in the somatosensory system, here we examined whether the direct application of noisy light on pyramidal neurons from the mouse-barrel cortex expressing a light-gated channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) can produce facilitation in somatosensory evoked field potentials. Using anesthetized Thy1-ChR2-YFP transgenic mice, and a new neural technology, that we called Brownian optogenetic-noise-photostimulation (BONP), we provide evidence for how BONP directly applied on the barrel cortex modulates the SNR in the amplitude of whisker-evoked field potentials (whisker-EFP). In all transgenic mice, we found that the SNR in the amplitude of whisker-EFP (at 30% of the maximal whisker-EFP) exhibited an inverted U-like shape as a function of the BONP level. As a control, we also applied the same experimental paradigm, but in wild-type mice, as expected, we did not find any facilitation effects. Our results show that the application of an intermediate intensity of BONP on the barrel cortex of ChR2 transgenic mice amplifies the SNR of somatosensory whisker-EFPs. This result may be relevant to explain the improvements found in sensory detection in humans produced by the application of transcranial-random-noise-stimulation (tRNS) on the scalp.

Neuropsychology and electroencephalography to study attention deficit hyperactivity disorder / Neuropsicología y electroencefalografía para estudio de trastorno de déficit de atención con hiperactividad

Abstract Introduction: In a previous study carried out with children from first to third grade in an elementary school, the authors of this research evidenced that different profiles of neuropsychological difficulties and functional status of brain structures exist at subcortical and cortical levels. Such results differ from those obtained in preschool children. Objective: To correlate data obtained through neuropsychological assessment and EEG in Mexican children from fourth grade through sixth grade in an elementary school diagnosed with ADHD. Materials and methods: A qualitative syndromic analysis was used to establish predominant neuropsychological mechanisms. A qualitative analysis of EEG was conducted to determine functional and maturational aspects of children's development. Results: Findings of correlations between neuropsychological and electrophysiological data showed diversity of neuropsychological difficulties and specific EEG patterns. The possibility of high correlation between data of qualitative neuropsychological analysis and functional analysis of electroencephalographic phenomenon is discussed. Conclusions: Final results suggest an important predictive level regarding clinical profiles obtained through the joined work of the clinical qualitative instruments used in this study.

Resumen Introducción. En un estudio anterior con niños de primero a tercero de primaria se demostró que, a diferencia de la edad preescolar, no existe un único perfil de dificultades neuropsicológicas y estado funcional de las estructuras cerebrales a nivel cortical y subcortical. Objetivo. Correlacionar la evaluación neuropsicológica con el registro electroencefalográfico (EEG) en alumnos mexicanos de escuela primaria -cuarto-sexto grado- con diagnóstico de trastorno de déficit de atención con hiperactividad (TDAH). Materiales y métodos. Se utilizó el análisis sindrómico cualitativo del estado funcional de los mecanismos cerebrales del nivel cortical y subcortical para los datos neuropsicológicos. El EEG se analizó por medio del método clínico cualitativo visual para valorar el nivel de madurez y funcionalidad de las estructuras corticales y subcorticales. Resultados. Se encontró la ausencia de un único cuadro clínico de dificultades neuropsicológicas con un único patrón afectado en el EEG. Se discutió el alto nivel de coincidencia clínica de los datos de análisis neuropsicológico y el EEG clínico cualitativo, cuya combinación interdisciplinaria presentó un alto nivel de correspondencia entre el nivel de madurez de diferentes estructuras cerebrales con las manifestaciones clínicas observadas. Conclusiones. Los resultados sugieren un importante nivel predictivo acerca del cuadro clínico por medio del análisis y trabajo conjunto de las herramientas de valoración clínica cualitativa utilizadas.

Effect of mechanical tactile noise on amplitude of visual evoked potentials: multisensory stochastic resonance.

The present investigation documents the electrophysiological occurrence of multisensory stochastic resonance in the human visual pathway elicited by tactile noise. We define multisensory stochastic resonance of brain evoked potentials as the phenomenon in which an intermediate level of input noise of one sensory modality enhances the brain evoked response of another sensory modality. Here we examined this phenomenon in visual evoked potentials (VEPs) modulated by the addition of tactile noise. Specifically, we examined whether a particular level of mechanical Gaussian noise applied to the index finger can improve the amplitude of the VEP. We compared the amplitude of the positive P100 VEP component between zero noise (ZN), optimal noise (ON), and high mechanical noise (HN). The data disclosed an inverted U-like graph for all the subjects, thus demonstrating the occurrence of a multisensory stochastic resonance in the P100 VEP.

Firing properties of auditory primary afferents from the basilar papilla in the chick.

We performed intracellular and single-unit extracellular recordings of neurons from different regions of the basilar papilla in the isolated chicken inner ear. We compared the spontaneous activity and the response properties of these neurons in embryos at E15 versus posthatching animals at P1. The recordings were carried out from the apical (position 0) to the basal extension at three positions of the basilar papilla, at 5%, 10% and 40% of the entire length of the cochlea. We found that the neurons at E15 recorded from these three regions exhibited a significant higher coefficient of variation compared with those neurons at P1 recorded in the same positions. This shows that in the posthatching age P1 the neurons from the whole basilar papilla become less irregular. We found that the intracellular action potential waveforms generated at E15 had small amplitudes and small depolarization slopes in comparison to those recorded at P1, respectively (53 ± 1 mV vs. 62 ± 2 mV; 66 ± 12 mV/msec vs. 166 ± 23 mV/msec). Furthermore, we also found that the response patterns to injection of current steps were phasic, tonic, or in the form of a not yet reported "burst" pattern. Our study shows that the low irregular discharge, the immature action potential waveforms, and the differences in the response patterns to current injection, highlights the important differences between neurons at E15 and P1, consistent with the incapacity of auditory neurons at embryonic age E16, to respond at sound levels <100 decibels.

Suppression of enhanced physiological tremor via stochastic noise: initial observations.

Enhanced physiological tremor is a disabling condition that arises because of unstable interactions between central tremor generators and the biomechanics of the spinal stretch reflex. Previous work has shown that peripheral input may push the tremor-related spinal and cortical systems closer to anti-phase firing, potentially leading to a reduction in tremor through phase cancellation. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether peripherally applied mechanical stochastic noise can attenuate enhanced physiological tremor and improve motor performance. Eight subjects with enhanced physiological tremor performed a visuomotor task requiring the right index finger to compensate a static force generated by a manipulandum to which Gaussian noise (3-35 Hz) was applied. The finger position was displayed on-line on a monitor as a small white dot which the subjects had to maintain in the center of a larger green circle. Electromyogram (EMG) from the active hand muscles and finger position were recorded. Performance was measured by the mean absolute deviation of the white dot from the zero position. Tremor was identified by the acceleration in the frequency range 7-12 Hz. Two different conditions were compared: with and without superimposed noise at optimal amplitude (determined at the beginning of the experiment). The application of optimum noise reduced tremor (accelerometric amplitude and EMG activity) and improved the motor performance (reduced mean absolute deviation from zero). These data provide the first evidence of a significant reduction of enhanced physiological tremor in the human sensorimotor system due to application of external stochastic noise.

Enhanced corticomuscular coherence by external stochastic noise.

Noise can have beneficial effects as shown by the stochastic resonance (SR) phenomenon which is characterized by performance improvement when an optimal noise is added. Modern attempts to improve human performance utilize this phenomenon. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether performance improvement by addition of optimum noise (ON) is related to increased cortical motor spectral power (SP) and increased corticomuscular coherence. Eight subjects performed a visuomotor task requiring to compensate with the right index finger a static force (SF) generated by a manipulandum on which Gaussian noise was applied. The finger position was displayed on-line on a monitor as a small white dot which the subjects had to maintain in the center of a green bigger circle. Electroencephalogram from the contralateral motor area, electromyogram from active muscles and finger position were recorded. The performance was measured by the mean absolute deviation (MAD) of the white dot from the zero position. ON compared to the zero noise condition induced an improvement in motor accuracy together with an enhancement of cortical motor SP and corticomuscular coherence in beta-range. These data suggest that the improved sensorimotor performance via SR is consistent with an increase in the cortical motor SP and in the corticomuscular coherence.

Broad-band Gaussian noise is most effective in improving motor performance and is most pleasant.

Modern attempts to improve human performance focus on stochastic resonance (SR). SR is a phenomenon in non-linear systems characterized by a response increase of the system induced by a particular level of input noise. Recently, we reported that an optimum level of 0-15 Hz Gaussian noise applied to the human index finger improved static isometric force compensation. A possible explanation was a better sensorimotor integration caused by increase in sensitivity of peripheral receptors and/or of internal SR. The present study in 10 subjects compares SR effects in the performance of the same motor task and on pleasantness, by applying three Gaussian noises chosen on the sensitivity of the fingertip receptors (0-15 Hz mostly for Merkel receptors, 250-300 Hz for Pacini corpuscles and 0-300 Hz for all). We document that only the 0-300 Hz noise induced SR effect during the transitory phase of the task. In contrast, the motor performance was improved during the stationary phase for all three noise frequency bandwidths. This improvement was stronger for 0-300 Hz and 250-300 Hz than for 0-15 Hz noise. Further, we found higher degree of pleasantness for 0-300 Hz and 250-300 Hz noise bandwidths than for 0-15 Hz. Thus, we show that the most appropriate Gaussian noise that could be used in haptic gloves is the 0-300 Hz, as it improved motor performance during both stationary and transitory phases. In addition, this noise had the highest degree of pleasantness and thus reveals that the glabrous skin can also forward pleasant sensations.

The strength of the corticospinal coherence depends on the predictability of modulated isometric forces.

Isometric compensation of predictably frequency-modulated low forces is associated with corticomuscular coherence (CMC) in beta and low gamma range. It remains unclear how the CMC is influenced by unpredictably modulated forces, which create a mismatch between expected and actual sensory feedback. We recorded electroencephalography from the contralateral hand motor area, electromyography (EMG), and the motor performance of 16 subjects during a visuomotor task in which they had to isometrically compensate target forces at 8% of the maximum voluntary contraction with their right index finger. The modulated forces were presented with predictable or unpredictable frequencies. We calculated the CMC, the cortical motor alpha-, beta-, and gamma-range spectral powers (SP), and the task-related desynchronization (TRD), as well as the EMG SP and the performance. We found that in the unpredictable condition the CMC was significantly lower and associated with lower cortical motor SP, stronger TRD, higher EMG SP, and worse performance. The findings suggest that due to the mismatch between predicted and actual sensory feedback leading to higher computational load and less stationary motor state, the unpredictable modulation of the force leads to a decrease in corticospinal synchrony, an increase in cortical and muscle activation, and a worse performance.

Improved sensorimotor performance via stochastic resonance.

Several studies about noise-enhanced balance control in humans support the hypothesis that stochastic resonance can enhance the detection and transmission in sensorimotor system during a motor task. The purpose of the present study was to extend these findings in a simpler and controlled task. We explored whether a particular level of a mechanical Gaussian noise (0-15 Hz) applied on the index finger can improve the performance during compensation for a static force generated by a manipulandum. The finger position was displayed on a monitor as a small white point in the center of a gray circle. We considered a good performance when the subjects exhibited a low deviation from the center of this circle and when the performance had less variation over time. Several levels of mechanical noise were applied on the manipulandum. We compared the performance between zero noise (ZN), optimal noise (ON), and high noise (HN). In all subjects (8 of 8) the data disclosed an inverted U-like graph between the inverse of the mean variation in position and the input noise level. In other words, the mean variation was significantly smaller during ON than during ZN or HN. The findings suggest that the application of a tactile-proprioceptive noise can improve the stability in sensorimotor performance via stochastic resonance. Possible explanations for this improvement in motor precision are an increase of the peripheral receptors sensitivity and of the internal stochastic resonance, causing a better sensorimotor integration and an increase in corticomuscular synchronization.

Corticomuscular coherence reflects interindividual differences in the state of the corticomuscular network during low-level static and dynamic forces.

In the investigation of corticomuscular coherence (CMC), it remained unclear why some subjects do not present significant CMC. We predicted that such subjects will develop CMC as a result of learning as indexed by improved performance during a visuomotor task. We investigated CMC, cortical motor spectral power (SP), and performance in 14 subjects during isometric compensation of a static force or dynamic force (DF) with their right index finger. We compared data from the beginning of the experiment (Time-Period 1) and after learning (Time-Period 2). Eight subjects (Group CMC++) presented CMC during Period 1 which increased during Period 2. Six subjects (Group CMC-+) presented CMC only during Period 2. Group CMC-+ was "more desynchronized" (lower SP, and stronger task-related desynchronization) than Group CMC++. The performance was better in Group CMC++ than in Group CMC-+. Learning was associated with higher SP, higher CMC, and better performance in both groups. However, in the more complicated DF condition, Group CMC++ learned better than Group CMC-+. The present study demonstrates the presence of CMC in all subjects tested and evidence that this is due to the fact that individuals may fall into 2 different groups in terms of oscillatory motor control: Group CMC-+ presents CMC only after learning.

Impact of a weekly dance class on the functional mobility and on the quality of life of individuals with Parkinson's disease.

Individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD) mainly suffer from motor impairments which increase the risk of falls and lead to a decline of quality of life. Several studies investigated the long-term effect of dance for people with PD. The aims of the present study were to investigate (i) the short-term effects of dance (i.e., the effect immediately after the dance class) on motor control in individuals with PD and (ii) the long-term effects of 8 months of participation in the weekly dance class on the quality of life of the PD patients and their caregivers. The dance lessons took place in a ballet studio and were led by a professional dancer. Eleven people with moderate to severe PD (58-85 years old) were subjected to a motor and quality of life assessments. With respect to the motor assessments the unified Parkinson disease rating scale III (UPDRS III), the timed up and go test (TUG), and the Semitandem test (SeTa) before and after the dance class were used. With respect to the quality of life and well-being we applied quality of life scale (QOLS) as well as the Westheimer questionnaire. Additionally, we asked the caregivers to fill out the Questionnaire for caregivers. We found a significant beneficial short-term effect for the total score of the UPDRS motor score. The strongest improvements were in rigidity scores followed by significant improvements in hand movements, finger taps, and facial expression. No significant changes were found for TUG and for SeTa. The results of the questionnaires showed positive effects of the dance class on social life, health, body-feeling and mobility, and on everyday life competences of the PD patients. Beneficial effect was also found for the caregivers. The findings demonstrate that dance has beneficial effect on the functional mobility of individuals with PD. Further, dance improves the quality of life of the patients and their caregivers. Dance may lead to better therapeutic strategies as it is engaging and enjoyable.

Corticospinal beta-range coherence is highly dependent on the pre-stationary motor state.

During steady muscle contractions, the human sensorimotor cortex generates oscillations in the beta-frequency range (15-30 Hz) that are coherent with the activity of contralateral spinal motoneurons. This corticospinal coherence is thought to favor stationary motor states, but its mode of operation remains elusive. We hypothesized that corticospinal beta-range coherence depends on the sensorimotor processing state before a steady force task and may thus increase after sensorimotor tuning to dynamic force generation. To test this hypothesis we instructed 16 human subjects to compensate static force after rest as well as after compensating predictable or unpredictable dynamic force with their right index finger. We calculated EEG-EMG coherence, cortical motor spectral power, and the motor performance during the force conditions. Corticospinal beta-coherence during stationary force was excessively elevated if the steady-state contraction was preceded by predictable dynamic force instead of rest, and was highest after unpredictable dynamic force. The beta-power decreased from rest to predictable dynamic force, and was lowest during unpredictable dynamic force. The increase in corticospinal beta-coherence showed a significant negative correlation with the preceding change in beta-power. The tuning to dynamic force did not entail an inferior motor performance during static force. The results imply a correlation between corticospinal beta-range coherence and the computational load of the preceding isometric motor engagement. We suggest beta-range coherence provides a functional corticospinal gateway for steady force-related processing that can override cortical states tuned to dynamic force. The modulation of corticospinal beta-range coherence might thus ensure comparable precision of static force in various motor contexts.